Chapter 2 Writing And City Life

Mesopotamia And Its Geography

Mesopotamia, situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern-day Iraq, was the cradle of early civilization, renowned for its prosperity, urban life, rich literature, mathematics, and astronomy. Its writing system and literature significantly influenced the eastern Mediterranean and Syria after 2000 BCE, fostering widespread communication among kingdoms. The land, initially known as Sumer and Akkad in its urbanized south, later became Babylonia after Babylon's prominence post-2000 BCE, and then Assyria with the northern kingdom's establishment around 1100 BCE. Sumerian was the earliest language, gradually replaced by Akkadian around 2400 BCE, which persisted until Alexander's time. Aramaic also emerged around 1400 BCE and became widely spoken after 1000 BCE.

Archaeological endeavors in Mesopotamia, beginning in the 1840s, have uncovered extensive evidence of its past, including hundreds of buildings, statues, artifacts, and thousands of written documents. European fascination with Mesopotamia stemmed from references in the Old Testament, particularly the Book of Genesis, which described Sumer as a land of brick-built cities. Early European scholars sought to validate biblical narratives through archaeology. Over time, archaeological methods became more sophisticated, shifting focus from literal biblical interpretation to reconstructing the lives of ordinary people.

The Mesopotamian geography is diverse, featuring fertile plains in the northeast supporting agriculture, a steppe region in the north ideal for animal herding, and tributaries of the Tigris facilitating trade with Iran. The southern region, a desert, became the birthplace of cities and writing due to the Euphrates and Tigris rivers carrying fertile silt. This silt was deposited through flooding or irrigation, enabling productive agriculture even in arid conditions. The rivers also served as crucial routes for transporting goods like grain, textiles, and resources from surrounding regions, facilitating the growth of urban economies.

The Significance Of Urbanism

Urbanism is characterized by more than just a large population; it signifies an economy diversified beyond food production, encompassing trade, manufacturing, and services. In cities, individuals specialize in specific crafts or services, becoming interdependent. For example, a seal carver relies on bronze tool makers who, in turn, need fuel and raw materials, highlighting the division of labor inherent in urban life. This specialization necessitates organized trade, storage, and coordination of various activities, including the procurement of raw materials, production of goods, and distribution of food. The need for meticulous record-keeping to manage these complex urban economies often led to the development of writing systems.

Movement Of Goods Into Cities

Mesopotamia's resource landscape was characterized by abundant food but a scarcity of mineral resources like stone, wood suitable for construction, and metals. Consequently, trade played a vital role in supplying cities with essential materials. Mesopotamians likely traded their surplus textiles and agricultural produce for wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, and stones from regions like Turkey, Iran, and across the Persian Gulf. Efficient transportation, particularly via rivers and canals, was crucial for the viability of the city economy. River transport, being the cheapest, allowed for the movement of large quantities of goods, making canals and natural river channels essential arteries for trade and communication between settlements.

The Development Of Writing

Writing is a system of visible signs used to represent spoken language and convey meaning. The earliest Mesopotamian clay tablets, dating back to around 3200 BCE, featured pictographic signs and numbers, primarily used for recording transactions of goods like oxen, fish, and bread loaves entering or leaving temples in Uruk. This development was driven by the complex nature of city life, where transactions involved multiple people, varied goods, and occurred over different times, necessitating a reliable system for record-keeping.

Mesopotamians used clay tablets for writing, shaping the clay into manageable sizes and inscribing it with wedge-shaped ('cuneiform') signs using a reed stylus while the clay was still moist. Once dried, these tablets became durable. Each transaction required a separate tablet, leading to the accumulation of vast archives. By 2600 BCE, cuneiform signs evolved to represent syllables, and writing expanded beyond record-keeping to include dictionaries, legal documents, historical narratives, and royal decrees. The Sumerian language was gradually replaced by Akkadian around 2400 BCE, with cuneiform writing continuing for over 2,000 years.

Learning to write was a complex and intellectual achievement, requiring the mastery of hundreds of syllabic signs. Scribes needed to be skilled in handling wet clay and inscribing it before it dried. Literacy was limited, with kings often proudly proclaiming their ability to read. Written communication was essential for administration, with official letters being read aloud to rulers. Literary texts, like epic poems, were also composed and transmitted, emphasizing the importance of knowledge preservation and dissemination across generations.

The System Of Writing

Mesopotamian writing, known as cuneiform, used wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets. Unlike alphabetic systems where signs represent single sounds, cuneiform signs represented syllables. This complexity meant that scribes had to learn a vast number of signs, making literacy a specialized skill. The use of clay tablets, which hardened when dried, made written records durable, contributing to the rich archaeological record of Mesopotamia.

Literacy

Literacy in Mesopotamia was not widespread. The complexity of the cuneiform script, with its hundreds of signs, made reading and writing a difficult skill to acquire. Kings who were literate often publicized this achievement. Official communications were typically read aloud to the king, indicating that literacy was concentrated among a specialized group of scribes and administrators.

The Uses Of Writing

Writing in Mesopotamia served multiple purposes beyond simple record-keeping. It was used to create dictionaries, authenticate land transfers through legal documents, record the achievements of kings, and communicate changes in laws. The epic poem about Enmerkar highlights the role of writing in organizing long-distance trade, with the king using a clay tablet to send a message to the ruler of Aratta. This underscores the perceived importance of writing as a marker of Mesopotamian urban culture and a tool for consolidating royal authority and facilitating trade.

Urbanisation In Southern Mesopotamia: Temples And Kings

Settlements in southern Mesopotamia began to develop around 5000 BCE, leading to the emergence of early cities. These cities often developed around temples, which served as the residences of deities and were the administrative and economic centers of the community. Early temples were simple shrines, but they grew in size and complexity over time, housing multiple rooms and courtyards. The god was considered the owner of all community property, including agricultural fields and herds, and temples managed the processing of produce, acted as employers, and maintained written records of distribution and allotments.

The development of cities was also influenced by the need to manage agricultural challenges, such as unpredictable river floods and disputes over water resources. Victorious war leaders gained influence by distributing loot and taking prisoners, eventually becoming kings who offered booty to the gods, beautified temples, and organized the distribution of temple wealth. This led to a cycle where leaders encouraged settlement for defense and security. Cities like Uruk grew significantly, attracting populations from surrounding villages and developing defensive walls, indicating a shift towards centralized authority and organized labor for large-scale projects like temple construction. This period also saw technological advancements, including the use of bronze tools, the construction of brick columns, the creation of mosaic art using clay cones, and the invention of the potter's wheel, which facilitated mass production.

The cylinder seal, a common artifact, served as a mark of authenticity and ownership, rolled onto clay to secure packages and letters. It was a symbol of a city dweller's role in public life, often bearing the owner's name, deity, or official position. These seals, carved by skilled craftsmen, were essential for trade and administration in the urban economy.

The Role Of Temples

Temples in early Mesopotamian cities were more than just places of worship; they were the residences of gods and served as central economic and administrative institutions. They managed agricultural lands, processed goods, employed merchants, and kept detailed written records of distributions and allotments. The temple's increasing activities and central role made it the primary urban institution.

The Role Of Kings

Kings emerged as influential figures, often from successful war leaders who consolidated power by distributing spoils and organizing community welfare. They beautified temples, managed temple wealth, and commanded labor for various projects, including fetching raw materials and constructing buildings. This leadership role, as exemplified by the epic of Enmerkar, granted kings high status and authority, fostering a mutually reinforcing cycle of development where leaders encouraged settlement for security and defense.

Technological Advances In Uruk

Around 3000 BCE, Uruk experienced significant technological advancements, including the use of bronze tools for crafts, the development of brick columns due to a lack of suitable wood, the creation of colorful mosaic decorations using clay cones, and the invention of the potter's wheel. The potter's wheel revolutionized production by enabling the mass production of similar pots.

The Seal – An Urban Artefact

Cylindrical stone seals, pierced through the center and rolled over wet clay, were a significant urban artifact. Carved by skilled artisans, they often bore inscriptions indicating the owner's name, deity, or position. Seals were used to authenticate documents, secure goods, and serve as a mark of a city dweller's identity and role in public life.

Life In The City

Mesopotamian cities were characterized by a ruling elite that controlled a significant portion of the wealth, as evidenced by the rich burials of kings and queens at Ur. Ordinary people lived in nuclear families, often with married sons residing with their parents. Family life was patriarchal, with the father as the head. Marriage involved parental consent, gifts exchanged between families, and temple offerings.

The city of Ur, excavated in the 1930s, reveals a different urban planning style compared to contemporary Mohenjo-daro. Its narrow, winding streets suggest that wheeled carts could not reach many houses, and goods were transported by donkeys. Houses often had irregular plots and lacked street drains, with rainwater channeled from sloping roofs into inner courtyards. Household refuse was typically thrown into the streets, causing street levels to rise over time, necessitating raised thresholds for houses. Privacy was maintained through internal courtyards, with light entering rooms from doorways rather than windows. Superstitions about houses were recorded on omen tablets, associating certain house features with luck or prosperity.

Ur: A Case Study

Excavations at Ur revealed a city with narrow, winding streets, suggesting limited access for wheeled carts. Houses were built around inner courtyards, with rainwater channeled into sumps. Refuse was often discarded into the streets, leading to rising street levels. Privacy was a key consideration, with light entering rooms from courtyards rather than windows.

Marriage Procedures

Marriage in Mesopotamia involved a formal process including a declaration of intent, parental consent, gift exchanges between the groom's and bride's families, and offerings at a temple. The bride received her inheritance share from her father upon marriage. Sons typically inherited the father's property.

Superstitions About Houses

Mesopotamians held superstitions regarding houses, recorded on omen tablets found at Ur. These beliefs associated specific house features, such as raised thresholds, the direction a front door opened, and whether a main door opened outwards or inwards, with wealth, luck, and the well-being of the household.

A Trading Town In A Pastoral Zone

After 2000 BCE, the royal capital of Mari flourished as a trading center located upstream on the Euphrates, distinct from the agricultural plains of southern Mesopotamia. The region around Mari supported both agriculture and animal husbandry, with communities often engaging in both. Herders and farmers had a symbiotic relationship, exchanging products like young animals, dairy, leather, and meat for grain and tools, and benefiting from animal manure. However, potential conflicts existed, such as herders damaging crops or raiding villages, and settled groups restricting access to water for pastoralists.

Nomadic communities from the western desert frequently entered the Mesopotamian heartland. These groups, including the Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans, played a significant role in Mesopotamian history. The Amorite kings of Mari adopted Mesopotamian culture while also respecting their own steppe deities. This intermixture of peoples and cultures contributed to the vitality of Mesopotamian civilization. The kings of Mari maintained vigilance over herders, with correspondence indicating the monitoring of fire signals between camps, suggesting potential raids or attacks. Mari's strategic location on the Euphrates made it a vital hub for trade in various goods, including timber, copper, tin, oil, and wine, facilitating commerce between the south and the mineral-rich uplands of Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon. The town levied charges on goods transported along the river, contributing to its prosperity despite not being a major military power.

The Kingdom Of Mari

Mari, situated on the Euphrates, was a significant trading town that prospered from its strategic location. It facilitated the exchange of goods between the southern agricultural regions and the mineral-rich uplands. The kingdom's territory was primarily used for pasturing sheep and goats, with herders and farmers often coexisting, albeit with potential for conflict.

The Palace At Mari Of King Zimrilim

The grand palace of King Zimrilim at Mari served as the royal residence, administrative hub, and production center, particularly for precious metal ornaments. It was renowned for its scale, covering 2.4 hectares with 260 rooms, including an audience hall adorned with wall paintings and a throne room. Daily records reveal extensive food provisions for the king's table, and the palace's location facilitated trade, with officers inspecting and levying charges on goods transported along the Euphrates.

Excavating Mesopotamian Towns

Modern archaeological excavation standards emphasize accuracy and careful recording, leading to smaller-scale digs compared to earlier projects like the excavation of Ur. At the small town of Abu Salabikh, archaeologists used surface scraping techniques to identify building outlines and features. Analysis of plant seeds, animal remains, and charred fish bones found in the earth helped identify kitchens and living areas. The presence of pig teeth on the streets suggested that pigs roamed freely within the town, and even house burials sometimes contained pig bones, indicating provisions for the afterlife.

Abu Salabikh: A Case Study

Excavations at Abu Salabikh illustrate modern archaeological methods. Techniques like surface scraping were used to identify structures. Analysis of recovered plant and animal remains, including charred fish bones and pig teeth, provided insights into the town's diet, animal husbandry, and daily life. Microscopic studies of room floors helped determine which areas were covered and which were open to the sky.

Cities In Mesopotamian Culture

Mesopotamians deeply valued city life and the coexistence of diverse communities and cultures. This pride is evident in their literature, particularly in the Gilgamesh Epic. After facing the death of his heroic friend, Gilgamesh sought immortality, ultimately failing and returning to Uruk. There, he found solace in contemplating the city walls built by his people, highlighting the city as a symbol of collective endeavor and achievement, rather than personal lineage, as a source of consolation for a king.

The Gilgamesh Epic

The Gilgamesh Epic, a significant Mesopotamian literary work, reflects the cultural importance of cities. The epic's conclusion, where Gilgamesh finds comfort in the city walls of Uruk after his quest for immortality fails, emphasizes the enduring significance of urban achievements and collective effort as a source of meaning and pride.

The Legacy Of Writing

Mesopotamia's most enduring legacy to the world lies in its scholarly traditions, particularly in time reckoning and mathematics. Tablets dating around 1800 BCE contain advanced mathematical concepts, including multiplication and division tables, square and square-root calculations, and compound interest. Their calculation of the square root of 2, for instance, was remarkably accurate. Mesopotamian mathematics also involved solving practical problems related to land measurement and volume calculations.

Our familiar systems of time division—a 12-month year based on lunar cycles, a four-week month, a 24-hour day, and a 60-minute hour—originated with the Mesopotamians. These divisions were adopted by subsequent civilizations, including the Romans, Islamic world, and medieval Europe. Mesopotamians meticulously recorded observations of solar and lunar eclipses, as well as the positions of stars and constellations, contributing to the development of astronomy.

These achievements were made possible through writing and the urban institution of schools, where students copied earlier texts, fostering a tradition of scholarship and intellectual advancement. This scholarly tradition allowed generations of scholars to build upon the work of their predecessors, driving progress in various fields.

Mathematics and Astronomy

Mesopotamian scholars developed sophisticated mathematical systems, including tables for multiplication, division, squares, and square roots, along with methods for calculating compound interest. Their astronomical observations and records of celestial events, such as eclipses and star positions, laid foundational work for the field.

Time Reckoning

The division of the year into 12 months, the month into four weeks, the day into 24 hours, and the hour into 60 minutes are all contributions from Mesopotamian timekeeping practices, which have been adopted globally.

Scholarly Tradition

The development of schools in Mesopotamian cities fostered a scholarly tradition where students read, copied, and built upon existing written texts. This practice ensured the transmission of knowledge across generations, enabling intellectual progress and the accumulation of learning in fields like mathematics and astronomy.

An Early Library

The Assyrians, who established a vast empire between 720 and 610 BCE, collected a significant library at their capital, Nineveh, under King Assurbanipal (668-627 BCE). Recognizing southern Babylonia as a center of high culture, Assurbanipal gathered a vast collection of tablets covering history, epics, omens, astrology, hymns, and poems. He dispatched scribes to find and copy ancient texts, utilizing the well-established scribal schools in Babylonia where tablets were copied extensively. This ensured that even texts written as early as 2000 BCE remained intelligible by 650 BCE. The library contained approximately 1,000 distinct texts, totaling around 30,000 tablets, meticulously cataloged and grouped by subject. Assurbanipal's efforts in preserving and organizing these texts highlight a profound appreciation for the cultural heritage of Mesopotamia and a desire to sustain the knowledge for future generations.

Assurbanipal's Library

King Assurbanipal of Assyria established a renowned library at Nineveh, housing around 30,000 tablets. This collection aimed to preserve Mesopotamian literary, historical, religious, and scholarly traditions. The library's organization through cataloging and the continued study of ancient Sumerian texts demonstrate a sophisticated approach to knowledge preservation and dissemination.

And, An Early Archaeologist!

Nabonidus, the last ruler of independent Babylon (556-539 BCE), demonstrated an early form of archaeological practice. Driven by a dream ordering him to revive an ancient cult, he sought information about its forgotten practices. He discovered a stele belonging to an early king (circa 1150 BCE) and meticulously observed the depiction of a priestess's clothing and jewelry to properly dress his daughter for her consecration. On another occasion, he ordered the repair of a broken statue of King Sargon of Akkad (circa 2370 BCE), demonstrating reverence for the gods and respect for past rulers. These actions suggest an early awareness of history and an effort to understand and preserve the legacy of earlier periods and rulers.

Nabonidus's Efforts

Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon, engaged in practices akin to early archaeology. He studied ancient stelae to understand past rituals and dress his daughter as a priestess, and he repaired a broken statue of King Sargon of Akkad out of reverence for the gods and past rulers. These actions reflect an early appreciation for historical continuity and preservation.